Why BATNA Mastery Separates Amateurs from Experts
Walk into any negotiation training, and within the first hour you will hear the word "BATNA." Coined by Roger Fisher and William Ury in Getting to Yes, BATNA — Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement — is the single most important concept in negotiation theory. Yet most professionals misunderstand it, underestimate it, or fail to develop it before walking into the negotiation room.
The consequence is predictable: they negotiate from weakness, accept poor deals, and discover too late that they had better options all along.
This article provides a deep, practical guide to BATNA mastery — from basic concept to advanced application, including how to develop, improve, and deploy BATNA strategically across business contexts.
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Learning Objectives
Readers will learn:
How to identify, evaluate, and strengthen your BATNA before any negotiation, The relationship between BATNA, reservation price, and ZOPA, How to estimate the other party's BATNA and exploit information asymmetry, Advanced BATNA strategies for multi-party, cross-cultural, and high-stakes negotiations, and How to avoid the most common BATNA-related mistakes that cost professionals millions.
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1. BATNA Defined: Beyond the Textbook Definition
The Formal Definition
Your BATNA is the course of action you will take if the current negotiation fails to produce an acceptable agreement. It is not your ideal outcome — it is your fallback. It is what you do when you walk away.
The Practical Reality
In practice, BATNA is your source of negotiation power. It determines:
Your confidence: A strong BATNA lets you negotiate with calm authority., Your reservation price: The worst deal you will accept is directly derived from your BATNA., Your creativity: A strong BATNA frees you from desperation, allowing integrative thinking., and Your patience: A strong BATNA means you can afford to wait; time pressure shifts to the other party..
BATNA Is Not...
Your bottom line: Your bottom line (reservation price) is derived from your BATNA, but they are not the same thing. Your BATNA is an alternative deal; your reservation price is the point at which the current deal is no better than your BATNA., Your ideal outcome: Your BATNA is typically worse than your target — it is your fallback, not your goal., A static concept: Your BATNA can be improved before and during negotiation. It is dynamic, not fixed., and A single alternative: Your BATNA is your best alternative, but you may have multiple alternatives. The BATNA is the strongest among them..
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2. The BATNA-Reservation Price-ZOPA Triangle
How BATNA Determines Reservation Price
Your reservation price is the point at which the negotiated agreement is exactly equal in value to your BATNA. Below this point, you are better off walking away.
Example — Buyer's perspective:
Your BATNA: An alternative supplier offers the same product at $95/unit, Your reservation price: $95 (you will not pay more than your best alternative), and If the current supplier demands $96, you walk to the alternative.
Example — Seller's perspective:
Your BATNA: You can sell the product to another buyer at $85/unit, Your reservation price: $85 (you will not accept less than your best alternative), and If the current buyer offers $84, you walk to the alternative buyer.
How Both Parties' BATNAs Create ZOPA
Seller's BATNA: $85 → Seller's Reservation Price: $85
Buyer's BATNA: $95 → Buyer's Reservation Price: $95
ZOPA: $85 — $95
If the seller's reservation price exceeds the buyer's reservation price (e.g., seller won't go below $100, buyer won't go above $95), there is no ZOPA — no agreement is possible without changing the negotiation scope.
WATNA: The Worst Alternative
WATNA (Worst Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement) is the worst outcome if negotiations fail. This is not the same as BATNA. Your BATNA is your best fallback; your WATNA is your worst fallback.
Why WATNA matters: Sometimes your BATNA is uncertain. "We'll find another supplier" is a BATNA, but the WATNA is "We can't find another supplier in time and production stops." Understanding both helps you assess risk.
Decision framework:
If the negotiated deal is better than your BATNA → accept, If the negotiated deal is worse than your BATNA → walk away, and If the negotiated deal is better than your WATNA but worse than your BATNA → assess risk tolerance.
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3. Developing Your BATNA: A Step-by-Step Process
Step 1: Identify All Possible Alternatives
List every alternative to reaching agreement with the current party. Be comprehensive.
Example — Procurement negotiation:
Use the backup supplier (pre-qualified, 10% more expensive), Manufacture in-house (requires 3-month setup, capital investment), Import from overseas (cheaper but longer lead time), Delay the project (avoid the purchase entirely), Substitute with a different material (engineering validation required), and Negotiate with a new supplier (time-consuming, uncertain).
Step 2: Evaluate Each Alternative
For each alternative, assess:
| Alternative | Cost | Time | Quality | Risk | Probability of Success |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Backup supplier | +10% price | Immediate | Equal | Low | 95% |
| In-house | $500K capex | 3 months | Unknown | Medium | 70% |
| Import | -15% price | 8 weeks | Needs validation | High | 60% |
| Delay | Lost revenue | Indefinite | N/A | High | 50% |
| Substitute | Engineering cost | 6 weeks | Needs testing | Medium | 65% |
| New supplier | Negotiation time | 4-6 weeks | Uncertain | High | 40% |
Step 3: Select Your BATNA
The alternative with the highest expected value (probability × outcome) becomes your BATNA. In the example above, the backup supplier at +10% price with 95% probability is likely the BATNA.
Step 4: Calculate Your Reservation Price
If your BATNA is the backup supplier at $110/unit (10% above the $100 target), your reservation price in the current negotiation is $110. You will not pay more than $110 because you can get it for $110 from the backup.
Step 5: Improve Your BATNA
Before entering the negotiation, ask: "Can I make my BATNA stronger?"
Negotiate with the backup supplier to reduce their price, Begin the in-house manufacturing feasibility study, Request samples from the overseas supplier for validation, and Explore the substitute material with your engineering team.
Each of these actions potentially improves your BATNA, which raises your reservation price, which expands your ZOPA, which improves your negotiation outcome.
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4. Estimating the Other Party's BATNA
Why Their BATNA Matters
If you know the other party's BATNA, you know their reservation price. If you know their reservation price, you know the ZOPA. If you know the ZOPA, you know where the deal will settle.
Techniques for Estimating Their BATNA
1. Market Research
What alternatives are available in the market?, What are prevailing prices and terms?, How many competitors exist?, and What is the other party's market position?.
2. Financial Analysis
For public companies: review annual reports, analyst reports, earnings calls, What is their capacity utilisation? (Low utilisation = weak BATNA — they need the deal), What is their cash position? (Low cash = time pressure = weak BATNA), and What is their customer concentration? (High concentration = dependent on this deal).
3. Behavioural Signals
How quickly do they respond? (Slow response = they have alternatives), Do they mention other options? (Directly or indirectly), How much detail do they request? (High detail = serious, few alternatives), and Do they pressure for quick closure? (Time pressure often signals weak BATNA).
4. Network Intelligence
Industry contacts: "Have you heard if they're talking to other suppliers?", Former employees: "What was their backup plan in similar situations?", Industry analysts: "What is this company's typical negotiation posture?", and Trade publications: "Are they bidding other projects?".
Information Asymmetry as Strategic Advantage
The party with better information about the other side's BATNA has a significant advantage. Expert negotiators invest substantial time in research before negotiation. They treat BATNA estimation as an intelligence-gathering exercise, not a guessing game.
Example: A procurement team is negotiating a software licence renewal. They discover through industry contacts that the software vendor recently lost two major accounts and is under revenue pressure. This suggests the vendor's BATNA (losing this account) is weak. The procurement team negotiates more aggressively, achieving a 25% discount vs the 10% they initially planned.
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5. BATNA in Different Business Contexts
Construction
Scenario: A contractor is negotiating a change order with the employer. The employer disputes the pricing.
Contractor's BATNA: File a formal claim under FIDIC Clause 20, potentially escalating to a Dispute Adjudication Board (DAB) or arbitration.
BATNA evaluation:
Cost: $50K-150K in legal and expert fees, Time: 3-6 months for DAB, 12-24 months for arbitration, Probability: 70% chance of full recovery in DAB, 80% in arbitration, and Expected value: If claim is $500K, DAB expected value = $350K - $100K costs = $250K.
Reservation price: The contractor should accept any settlement above $250K (the BATNA expected value). Settling at $300K is better than the BATNA.
Software
Scenario: A SaaS startup is negotiating a Series A investment with a venture capital firm.
Startup's BATNA: Bootstrapped growth using revenue, or seek investment from another VC.
BATNA evaluation:
Bootstrapping: slower growth, no dilution, 60% probability of survival, Alternative VC: 2 other firms have expressed interest, but terms unknown, and Current VC offer: $5M at $20M post-money (25% dilution).
Strategic move: The startup improves its BATNA by securing a term sheet from a second VC before negotiating with the first. This transforms the negotiation dynamic — the first VC knows the startup has a real alternative.
Healthcare
Scenario: A hospital is negotiating with a medical device supplier for MRI equipment.
Hospital's BATNA: Purchase from a competing manufacturer at a comparable price, or lease instead of buy.
BATNA improvement: The hospital obtains a written quote from the competitor before negotiating with the preferred supplier. The quote is 8% higher but includes extended warranty. The hospital uses this as leverage: "We have a competitive offer at $1.8M with 5-year warranty. Can you match or beat that?"
Government Procurement
Scenario: A government agency is negotiating a sole-source contract with a defence contractor.
Agency's BATNA: Run a competitive tender (6-12 months delay) or accept the sole-source pricing.
Challenge: Government agencies often have weak BATNAs because procurement regulations make sole-source justification difficult to reverse. The contractor knows this and prices accordingly.
BATNA improvement: The agency can prepare the competitive tender documentation before entering sole-source negotiations. The message is clear: "We are prepared to go to tender if we cannot reach fair pricing here."
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6. Case Study: The Manufacturing Supply Crisis
Situation
A mid-sized automotive parts manufacturer (AutoParts Co.) relied on a single supplier (SteelCo) for 70% of its specialised steel requirements. SteelCo notified AutoParts of a 22% price increase effective in 60 days, citing raw material cost escalation.
Problem
AutoParts had no qualified alternative supplier. The qualification process for a new steel supplier in the automotive industry takes 6-9 months (PPAP certification, quality audits, trial runs). SteelCo knew this — their price increase was timed to exploit AutoParts' weak BATNA.
Negotiation Strategy
AutoParts' procurement director took a multi-pronged approach:
1. Immediate BATNA Development:
Contacted three alternative steel suppliers for emergency quotes, Initiated the PPAP qualification process with the most promising alternative, Explored steel imports from Europe (higher cost but available in 8 weeks), and Negotiated with a steel broker for spot purchases to bridge the gap.
2. Value Analysis:
Engineering team analysed whether alternative steel grades could substitute, Found that 40% of the specifications could use a cheaper grade, and Calculated that grade substitution would offset 8% of the price increase.
3. Negotiation Approach:
Did not reveal the weakness of their BATNA, Presented the price increase as a shared problem: "We understand raw material costs are rising. Let's work together to mitigate the impact.", Proposed a phased increase: 10% now, 5% in 6 months, 7% in 12 months — tied to verified raw material index movement, Offered to extend the contract term from 2 to 3 years in exchange for a lower increase, and Proposed joint inventory management to reduce SteelCo's working capital.
Mistakes
AutoParts' original mistake: Allowing 70% single-source dependency without a qualified backup. This is a supply chain failure that created the weak BATNA., and SteelCo's mistake: Being too aggressive (22% increase) — this triggered AutoParts to invest in alternatives that would permanently reduce SteelCo's business..
Outcome
Agreed price increase: 12% phased over 12 months (vs 22% immediate), Contract extended to 3 years with volume commitments, AutoParts began qualifying a second supplier (completed in 7 months), Within 18 months, AutoParts reduced SteelCo's share from 70% to 50%, and SteelCo lost long-term volume by being too aggressive short-term.
Lessons Learned
BATNA development takes time — start before you need it. AutoParts should have qualified a backup supplier years earlier., A weak BATNA can be improved mid-negotiation. The emergency qualification process, while not complete, signalled to SteelCo that AutoParts was developing alternatives., Overplaying a strong hand creates long-term losses. SteelCo's 22% demand was profitable short-term but cost them 20% of their business long-term., Phased agreements reduce risk. Tying increases to verified indices protected both parties from market volatility., and Single-source dependency is a strategic vulnerability. The procurement director implemented a policy: no supplier above 50% of any category..
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7. Advanced BATNA Strategies
The MESO Technique (Multiple Equivalent Simultaneous Offers)
MESO involves presenting multiple offers simultaneously, each of which is equally acceptable to you but differs in structure. This technique:
Reveals the other party's preferences (which offer they prefer tells you what they value), Increases the probability of agreement (multiple options vs a single take-it-or-leave-it), and Creates an aura of flexibility while maintaining your reservation price.
Example: Instead of offering a single price of $100/unit, present three options:
Option A: $100/unit, net 30, 12-month contract, Option B: $95/unit, net 15, 24-month contract, and Option C: $105/unit, net 60, 6-month contract.
All three are equivalent in value to you. The other party's choice reveals what they value most (price, payment terms, or flexibility).
Contingent BATNA
Your BATNA may be probabilistic rather than certain. "We might get approval for in-house production" is a contingent BATNA. Expert negotiators calculate the expected value of contingent BATNAs and use them strategically — but they do not overstate the probability, as this leads to overconfidence and poor decisions.
BATNA in Multi-Party Negotiations
In multi-party negotiations, BATNA analysis becomes more complex:
Your BATNA may involve forming a coalition with some parties against others, The other parties' BATNAs may involve excluding you, and BATNA strength is relative — your BATNA may be strong against one party but weak against a coalition.
Strategy: Map all parties' BATNAs and identify whose BATNA creates the most leverage. Form coalitions that strengthen your collective BATNA.
BATNA and the Endowment Effect
The endowment effect (a behavioural economics concept identified by Thaler and Kahneman) causes people to overvalue what they already have. In negotiation, this means:
You may overvalue your current position and undervalue your BATNA, and The other party may overvalue their current position and reject reasonable offers.
Mitigation: Before negotiation, explicitly compare your current position to your BATNA using objective criteria. Ask: "If I didn't already have this deal, would I accept it over my BATNA?"
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8. Practical Tools
BATNA Development Worksheet
BATNA DEVELOPMENT WORKSHEET
Negotiation: ____________________ Date: ___________
CURRENT SITUATION.
What am I negotiating for? _______________________
What is my target outcome? _______________________
ALTERNATIVE IDENTIFICATION.
Alternative 1: _________________________________
Alternative 2: _________________________________
Alternative 3: _________________________________
Alternative 4: _________________________________
ALTERNATIVE EVALUATION.
Alt | Cost | Time | Quality | Risk | Probability | Expected Value
1 | | | | | |
2 | | | | | |
3 | | | | | |
4 | | | | | |
BATNA SELECTION.
Best alternative: _______________________________
Expected value of BATNA: ________________________
RESERVATION PRICE.
My reservation price: __________________________
(Derived from BATNA, not from arbitrary target)
BATNA IMPROVEMENT ACTIONS.
Action 1: ___________________ Deadline: _______
Action 2: ___________________ Deadline: _______
Action 3: ___________________ Deadline: _______
OTHER PARTY'S BATNA (ESTIMATED).
Their likely alternative: _______________________
Their reservation price (est.): _________________
Confidence in estimate (1-10): _________________
Information sources: ____________________________
Red Flags: Signs of Weak BATNA
You cannot identify any alternative to this deal, Your alternatives are more expensive or lower quality, You are under time pressure that the other party doesn't share, The other party knows you have no alternatives, You are negotiating because you "have to," not because you "choose to", You cannot walk away without significant cost, and The other party has recently rejected other potential partners (they know their BATNA is strong).
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9. Common Mistakes
Mistake 1: Not Developing a BATNA
Why it occurs: Professionals enter negotiations assuming they will reach agreement. They don't plan for failure.
How experts avoid it: They always prepare a BATNA, even for seemingly straightforward negotiations. They ask: "What will I do if this negotiation fails?"
Mistake 2: Overestimating BATNA Strength
Why it occurs: Wishful thinking. "I'll just find another supplier" feels like a strong BATNA until you try and discover it takes 6 months.
How experts avoid it: They test their BATNA before relying on it. They obtain actual quotes, not hypothetical estimates. They calculate expected value, not best-case scenarios.
Mistake 3: Revealing Your BATNA
Why it occurs: In the interest of transparency, negotiators say things like "We're also talking to Competitor X." This reveals that the BATNA is not yet secured.
How experts avoid it: They let their BATNA be implied through behaviour and confidence, not stated explicitly. If asked, they redirect: "We're focused on reaching a good agreement here."
Mistake 4: Underestimating the Other Party's BATNA
Why it occurs: Egocentric bias — we focus on our own alternatives and assume the other party has fewer.
How experts avoid it: They invest equal effort in estimating the other party's BATNA. They use market research, financial analysis, and network intelligence.
Mistake 5: Using BATNA as a Threat
Why it occurs: Negotiators with a strong BATNA feel tempted to brandish it: "If you don't agree, we'll go to your competitor."
How experts avoid it: They let the BATNA create quiet confidence. Threatening destroys trust and triggers reactive devaluation — the other party rejects your proposal simply because it came from you.
Mistake 6: Failing to Improve BATNA Before Negotiating
Why it occurs: Time pressure. The negotiation is tomorrow, so there's no time to develop alternatives.
How experts avoid it: They develop BATNAs continuously, not just before negotiations. They maintain qualified backup suppliers, nurture alternative customer relationships, and build optionality into their business.
Mistake 7: Confusing BATNA with Bottom Line
Why it occurs: The terms are used interchangeably in casual conversation.
How experts avoid it: They understand that BATNA is an alternative deal; the bottom line (reservation price) is derived from the BATNA. They calculate: "My BATNA is worth $X, so my reservation price in this negotiation is $X."
Mistake 8: Ignoring WATNA
Why it occurs: Optimism bias — we focus on the best alternative and ignore the worst.
How experts avoid it: They calculate both BATNA and WATNA. If the WATNA is catastrophic (e.g., business closure), they adjust their risk tolerance accordingly. A deal slightly worse than BATNA may be preferable to risking the WATNA.
Mistake 9: Static BATNA Thinking
Why it occurs: Professionals treat BATNA as fixed — "My alternative is worth $X" — and don't consider that it can change during negotiation.
How experts avoid it: They continuously look for ways to improve their BATNA during the negotiation process. A new contact, a market shift, or a competitor's offer can strengthen their position mid-negotiation.
Mistake 10: BATNA Arrogance
Why it occurs: A strong BATNA creates overconfidence. Negotiators with strong alternatives become aggressive, damaging relationships and triggering resistance.
How experts avoid it: They use their strong BATNA to negotiate calmly and patiently, not aggressively. They understand that today's adversary is tomorrow's partner. A strong BATNA gives you the luxury of being generous — use it to build goodwill.
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10. Advanced Expert Tips
The Phantom BATNA
You can project BATNA strength without having a strong BATNA. This is not deception — it is strategic ambiguity. Behaving as if you have alternatives (patience, calmness, willingness to walk) signals BATNA strength. The other party adjusts their behaviour accordingly.
Caution: Do not fabricate specific alternatives. "We have other options" is acceptable. "We have a signed contract with your competitor" when you don't is deception.
BATNA Timing
When you deploy BATNA matters. Revealing BATNA strength early sets the negotiation range. Revealing it late (after the other party has invested time) creates sunk-cost pressure. Expert negotiators time their BATNA signals strategically.
BATNA in Repeated Games
In one-time negotiations, a strong BATNA is pure advantage. In repeated negotiations (ongoing supplier relationships, annual contract renewals), overusing BATNA power creates resentment and motivates the other party to develop their own alternatives. Expert negotiators balance short-term leverage with long-term relationship management.
The No-Deal Mindset
The most powerful BATNA is the willingness to walk away. Chris Voss calls this "emotional detachment." If you are emotionally committed to reaching a deal, your effective BATNA is weak — you will accept poor terms to avoid the discomfort of no deal. Expert negotiators cultivate genuine willingness to walk: "I would rather have no deal than a bad deal."
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Key Takeaways
BATNA is your negotiation power. A strong BATNA gives you confidence, patience, and leverage., Develop your BATNA before negotiating. Identify alternatives, evaluate them, and select the best., Your reservation price is derived from your BATNA. Never set a bottom line without first calculating your BATNA's value., Improve your BATNA continuously. Don't wait until you need it — develop alternatives before you're under pressure., Estimate the other party's BATNA. Information about their alternatives is as valuable as knowledge of your own., Never reveal your BATNA directly. Let it create quiet confidence; don't brandish it as a threat., Consider WATNA alongside BATNA. Understand your worst case to properly assess risk., Use MESO to reveal preferences. Multiple equivalent offers provide information while maintaining your position., Don't let a strong BATNA make you arrogant. Today's adversary is tomorrow's partner., and Cultivate the no-deal mindset. The willingness to walk away is the most powerful BATNA of all..
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FAQ
1. What is BATNA in simple terms?
BATNA stands for Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement. It is what you will do if you cannot reach a deal in the current negotiation. For example, if you're negotiating to buy a car and the seller won't accept your price, your BATNA is buying a similar car from a different dealer at their offered price.
2. How is BATNA different from a bottom line?
Your bottom line (reservation price) is the worst deal you will accept in the current negotiation. It is derived from your BATNA. If your BATNA is buying from another dealer at $25,000, your reservation price in the current negotiation is $25,000 — you won't pay more than your best alternative.
3. Can I have more than one BATNA?
You can have multiple alternatives, but your BATNA is the single best one. If you have three alternative suppliers at $100, $110, and $120, your BATNA is the $100 supplier. The others are fallback options but not your BATNA.
4. What if I don't have any alternatives?
If you have no alternatives, your BATNA is "no deal" — which means you accept whatever the other party offers. This is the weakest possible negotiating position. Before entering any negotiation, invest time in developing at least one alternative, even if it's not ideal.
5. How do I estimate the other party's BATNA?
Research their market alternatives, financial situation, capacity utilisation, customer concentration, and recent behaviour. Use industry contacts, public financial data, trade publications, and behavioural signals during negotiation. The more you know about their alternatives, the better you can estimate their reservation price.
6. Should I tell the other party about my BATNA?
Generally, no. Revealing your BATNA eliminates its strategic value. Let it create confidence and patience instead. If you have a strong BATNA, your behaviour (calmness, willingness to walk) will signal it without you stating it. If you have a weak BATNA, definitely do not reveal it.
7. What is MESO and how does it relate to BATNA?
MESO (Multiple Equivalent Simultaneous Offers) is a technique where you present multiple offers, each equivalent in value to you. The other party's choice reveals their preferences. MESO is related to BATNA because each offer is designed to be above your reservation price (derived from your BATNA), giving you flexibility while maintaining your floor.
8. How do I improve my BATNA during a negotiation?
You can improve your BATNA mid-negotiation by: contacting alternative suppliers/partners, obtaining competing quotes, exploring substitute solutions, or building coalitions with other stakeholders. Even partial progress on an alternative (e.g., starting the qualification process with a new supplier) strengthens your perceived BATNA.
9. What is the difference between BATNA and WATNA?
BATNA is your Best Alternative — the best outcome if negotiations fail. WATNA is your Worst Alternative — the worst outcome if negotiations fail. Understanding both helps you assess risk. If your WATNA is catastrophic (e.g., business closure), you may accept a deal slightly worse than your BATNA to avoid the risk.
10. Can a strong BATNA be a disadvantage?
Yes. A strong BATNA can create overconfidence, leading to aggressive behaviour that damages relationships. In repeated negotiations, overusing BATNA power motivates the other party to develop their own alternatives, eroding your long-term advantage. Use BATNA strength with restraint and professionalism.
11. How does BATNA work in salary negotiation?
Your BATNA in salary negotiation is your best alternative job offer (or staying at your current job). If you have a competing offer at $120K, your reservation price for the new job is $120K. If you have no competing offer, your BATNA is staying at your current salary, which gives you less leverage. This is why job-seekers are advised to negotiate while employed — being employed gives you a strong BATNA.
12. What is a "phantom BATNA"?
A phantom BATNA is the strategic projection of having alternatives without actually having them. You behave as if you have options (patience, calmness, willingness to walk) which signals BATNA strength. This is not lying — you're simply not revealing that you lack alternatives. However, fabricating specific alternatives ("We have a signed deal with your competitor") is unethical deception.
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References
Fisher, R., Ury, W., & Patton, B. (2011). Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In (3rd ed.). Penguin Books., Voss, C. (2016). Never Split the Difference. Harper Business., Shell, G. R. (2018). Bargaining for Advantage (3rd ed.). Penguin Books., Raiffa, H. (1982). The Art and Science of Negotiation. Harvard University Press., Thompson, L. L. (2012). The Mind and Heart of the Negotiator (5th ed.). Pearson., Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux., Ury, W. (2007). The Power of a Positive No. Bantam Books., Diamond, S. (2010). Getting More. Crown Business., Malhotra, D., & Bazerman, M. (2007). Negotiation Genius. Bantam Books., and Lewicki, R., Saunders, D., & Barry, B. (2015). Negotiation (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill..