Why Salary Negotiation Is the Most Personal Negotiation You'll Ever Do
Salary negotiation is unique. It's not just about money — it's about self-worth, career trajectory, and the power dynamics between employer and employee. Unlike procurement or sales negotiations where you can walk away to another supplier, salary negotiation involves your livelihood, your identity, and your future.
Research by George Mason University found that professionals who negotiate their starting salary earn an average of $7,500 more initially — and that difference compounds to over $500,000 over a career. Yet 41% of professionals never negotiate their salary at all. They accept the first offer, fearing that negotiation will cost them the job or damage the relationship before it starts.
This article provides a comprehensive, science-based framework for salary negotiation — backed by behavioural economics, cognitive psychology, and decades of compensation research.
---
Learning Objectives
Readers will learn:
How to determine your market value using data, not feelings, The psychology of salary negotiation — overcoming fear, impostor syndrome, and power asymmetry, How to structure the conversation for maximum impact using proven frameworks, Advanced techniques: total compensation negotiation, counter-offers, and promotion negotiations, and How to handle common employer tactics and objections.
---
1. The Psychology of Salary Negotiation
Why People Don't Negotiate
Fear of rejection: "If I ask for more, they might withdraw the offer." Research shows this fear is largely unfounded — employers rarely withdraw offers because a candidate negotiates professionally. A study by CareerBuilder found that only 3% of employers revoked an offer after negotiation.
Impostor syndrome: "I don't deserve more." High-achievers are particularly susceptible. They attribute their success to luck or external factors, undervaluing their contributions. This cognitive bias, identified by Clance and Imes (1978), causes professionals to negotiate against themselves before the employer even speaks.
Power asymmetry perception: "They hold all the cards." Candidates perceive employers as having unlimited alternatives, when in fact the employer has invested significant time and money in the selection process. By the time you receive an offer, you are their chosen candidate — replacing you costs them weeks and thousands of dollars.
Social conditioning: "It's rude to talk about money." Particularly prevalent among women and in certain cultures. Research by Babcock and Laschever (2008) found that women are less likely to initiate negotiation, partly due to social conditioning that labels assertive women as "difficult" while labelling assertive men as "confident."
The Employer's Psychology
Understanding the employer's perspective gives you leverage:
They want you: By the time you receive an offer, the employer has decided you're the best candidate. They don't want to restart the search., They have budget flexibility: Initial offers are typically 10-20% below the maximum the employer is willing to pay. The "budget" they cite is rarely the real ceiling., They expect negotiation: Experienced hiring managers expect candidates to negotiate. An un-negotiated offer leaves budget unspent — which the manager may lose in the next budget cycle., and They fear losing you: If you walk away, they face weeks of delay, re-interviewing, and the risk that the second-choice candidate has accepted another role..
Overcoming the Fear
Reframe the negotiation: You are not asking for a favour. You are establishing the market value of your services. The employer is a buyer; you are a seller. Price negotiation is normal in every commercial transaction.
Separate self-worth from salary: Your salary is a commercial rate, not a measure of your value as a person. Negotiating salary is no different from negotiating any other business transaction.
Use data, not feelings: "I'm asking for $X because the market rate for this role with my experience is $X-$Y, based on [data sources]." Data-based negotiation is professional and non-confrontational.
---
2. Determining Your Market Value
The Market Research Process
Step 1: Gather salary data from multiple sources
Glassdoor, PayScale, Salary.com — broad market data, Robert Half, Michael Page, Hays — industry-specific salary guides, LinkedIn Salary Insights — role and location-specific data, Industry association surveys — specialised role data, and Recruiter conversations — current market intelligence.
Step 2: Adjust for your specific factors
Experience level: How many years above/below the typical candidate?, Specialised skills: Do you have skills that are scarce in the market?, Industry: Different industries pay differently for the same role, Location: Cost of living and local market rates, Company size: Larger companies typically pay more, and Education and certifications: PMP, MBA, PE, etc..
Step 3: Determine your value range
Floor: The minimum you will accept (your BATNA-derived reservation price), Target: The realistic optimum (75th percentile of market range), and Anchor: The opening request (90th percentile, credible and justified).
The BATNA in Salary Negotiation
Your BATNA is your best alternative to this offer:
Current job: If employed, your current salary + expected raise is your BATNA, Competing offer: If you have another offer, that's your BATNA, and Unemployment: If you have no job and no other offer, your BATNA is weak (continued job search).
Strengthening your BATNA:
Negotiate while employed (strongest position), Obtain competing offers before negotiating, Build skills that increase your market value, and Develop a professional network that provides opportunities.
---
3. The Salary Negotiation Framework
Phase 1: Deflection (Before the Offer)
When asked about salary expectations before an offer is made, deflect:
Employer: "What are your salary expectations?"
Response options:
"I'd like to learn more about the full scope of the role before discussing compensation. Could you share the range you're considering for this position?", "I'm focused on finding the right opportunity. I'm sure we can come to a fair agreement once we both determine I'm the right fit.", and "Based on my research, market rates for this role range from $X to $Y. I'd want to be in the upper part of that range, but I'd like to understand the total compensation package before discussing specifics.".
Why deflect: Naming a number first anchors you. If you say $90K and their budget was $110K, you've left $20K on the table. If you say $110K and their budget was $90K, you may be screened out before you can demonstrate your value.
Phase 2: Preparation (When the Offer Comes)
When you receive an offer:
Express enthusiasm: "Thank you, I'm excited about this opportunity.", Do not accept immediately: "I'd like to review the full compensation package. Can you send me the details in writing?", and Ask for time: "I'll get back to you within 48 hours.".
Why wait: The offer moment is emotionally charged. You're relieved, excited, and eager to say yes. This is the worst moment to negotiate. Wait 24-48 hours, review the full package, prepare your counter, and then negotiate.
Phase 3: The Counter-Offer
Structure your counter:
Express continued enthusiasm: "I'm very excited about this role and confident I'll deliver significant value.", Present your anchor with justification: "Based on my research of market rates for this role, my [specific experience/certifications/achievements], and the scope of responsibility, I was hoping for something closer to $X.", Use precise numbers: $97,500 not $100,000. Precise numbers signal research., and Focus on total compensation: "I'm interested in the total package — base, bonus, equity, benefits. Can we discuss the overall structure?".
Phase 4: The Negotiation Conversation
Technique 1: The "How" Question (Chris Voss)
"I was hoping for something closer to $X. How can we make that work?", and This forces the employer to solve your problem rather than simply saying no..
Technique 2: The Value Frame
"In my current role, I delivered [specific achievement worth $Y]. I'm confident I can deliver similar value here. An investment of $X in my compensation will return multiples of that in [specific outcomes].".
Technique 3: The Total Compensation Approach
If the base salary is inflexible, negotiate other components.
- Signing bonus- Performance bonus target and structure
- Equity/stock options
- Vacation time
- Flexible work arrangements
- Professional development budget
- Title (affects future market value)
Technique 4: The "Is there flexibility?" Question
"Is there flexibility on the base salary?" — This is a low-risk question that invites the employer to reveal their range without you committing to a number..
---
4. Real Business Examples
Software Engineer
A senior software engineer receives an offer of $140K base + $20K bonus from a fintech company. Market research shows the 75th percentile for this role and experience is $160K base.
Negotiation:
"Thank you for the offer. I'm excited about the role and the team.", "Based on my research, market rates for senior engineers with my experience in fintech range from $150K to $170K base. I was hoping for something closer to $165K.", and "I also wanted to understand the equity component — what does the stock option package look like?".
Outcome: Base increased to $155K, bonus target increased to $25K, equity grant increased by 30%. Total compensation: $180K vs initial $160K.
Project Manager
A PMP-certified project manager with 12 years of construction experience receives an offer of $95K from a general contractor. Their current salary is $85K. Market rate for this experience level is $100K-$120K.
Negotiation:
"I'm excited about this opportunity and confident my experience in [specific project type] will be valuable.", "I notice the base is $95K. Based on market data from the PMI salary survey and Robert Half, PMP-certified PMs with 10+ years in construction earn $105K-$125K in this market.", and "I was hoping for something closer to $115K. Is there flexibility?".
Outcome: Base increased to $108K with a guaranteed first-year review and performance bonus of $12K. Total: $120K.
Executive
A VP of Sales candidate receives an offer of $200K base + $100K OTE bonus + $50K equity from a SaaS company. The candidate's current package is $180K + $80K + $40K. Market rate for VP of Sales in SaaS is $220K-$280K base.
Negotiation:
"Thank you for the offer. I'm very interested in the role.", "I'd like to discuss the total package. Based on my research and my track record of [specific revenue achievement], I was thinking more in the range of $250K base with $150K OTE and enhanced equity.", and "I understand base salary may have internal equity constraints. Could we look at a larger equity grant or a guaranteed first-year bonus to bridge the gap?".
Outcome: Base increased to $230K, OTE increased to $130K, equity doubled. Total: $360K+ vs initial $350K — but the equity upside significantly increased the total value.
---
5. Case Study: The Underpaid Marketing Director
Situation
Sarah was a marketing director at a mid-sized manufacturing company, earning $95K. She had been in the role for 4 years without a significant raise. Her peers at similar companies earned $120K-$140K. She was offered a new role at a different company at $110K — a 16% increase that felt like a win.
Problem
Sarah's initial reaction was to accept immediately — $110K was significantly more than her current $95K. But she felt uneasy. The role had more scope than her current position, and she knew the market rate was higher.
Negotiation Strategy
Sarah invested 2 days in preparation:
1. Market research:
Glassdoor: $120K-$145K for marketing directors in her market, Robert Half salary guide: $125K-$150K, LinkedIn Salary Insights: $118K-$142K, and Two recruiter conversations confirmed $130K-$145K was realistic.
2. Value documentation:
Documented 3 major campaigns with quantified ROI ($2.3M, $1.8M, $3.1M), Listed specialised skills (marketing automation, analytics, team leadership), and Noted her MBA and industry certifications.
3. BATNA analysis:
Current job: $95K (weak BATNA but not zero — she was employed), No competing offer (moderate weakness), and Strong performance reviews (internal leverage).
4. Counter-offer preparation:
Anchor: $145K (90th percentile, justified by data), Target: $135K (75th percentile), and Reservation price: $120K (market floor for the role).
The Negotiation Conversation
Sarah called the hiring manager:
"Thank you so much for the offer. I'm genuinely excited about this role and the opportunity to contribute to [company]'s growth."
"I've done some research, and based on market data from [sources], my track record of [specific achievements], and the scope of this role, I was hoping for something closer to $145K."
The hiring manager paused. "That's above our budget for this role. We had approval for $110K-$120K."
Sarah used the "how" question: "I understand there are budget constraints. How can we make this work? I'm confident I'll deliver significant value, and I want to feel fairly compensated so I can focus entirely on driving results."
The manager: "Let me talk to our VP. I can't promise anything, but let me see what's possible."
Mistakes
Sarah's original mistake: Accepting her underpaid position for 4 years without negotiating or seeking market data. Compounding salary loss: approximately $100K+ over 4 years., and Sarah's near-mistake: Almost accepting the $110K offer without negotiating. The 16% increase felt like a win, but it was still below market..
Outcome
The hiring manager returned with $125K base + $15K signing bonus, Sarah countered: "I appreciate the movement. Could we do $130K with the signing bonus?", Final agreement: $130K base + $10K signing bonus + $15K performance bonus target, and Total first-year compensation: $155K — 63% above her previous $95K.
Lessons Learned
Research before accepting. Sarah's $95K was below market for 4 years because she never checked., Don't let the first offer anchor you. $110K felt like a big increase, but it was still below market., Use the "how" question. "How can we make this work?" forced the manager to advocate for her internally., Be willing to walk. Sarah's reservation price was $120K. If the employer had refused to go above $115K, she would have stayed at her current job and continued searching., and Total compensation matters. The signing bonus and performance bonus added $25K to the package..
---
6. Advanced Salary Negotiation Techniques
The Competing Offer Strategy
Having a competing offer is the strongest BATNA in salary negotiation. But how you use it matters:
Do:
Mention it indirectly: "I'm in discussions with another company and expecting an offer.", Use it as leverage, not a threat: "I'm excited about this role, but I want to make sure the compensation is competitive with what I'm seeing in the market.", and Give the employer time to respond: "I expect to receive the other offer by Friday. I'd love to resolve this before then.".
Don't:
Threaten: "Match this or I'm going elsewhere" (destroys relationship), Fabricate: Never invent a competing offer (if discovered, the offer may be withdrawn), and Show the other offer: Keep the specifics vague — "It's in the $X range".
The Promotion Negotiation
Negotiating a raise during a promotion is different from negotiating a new offer:
Document your value: Prepare a one-page summary of achievements with quantified impact, Research the market: What does this role pay at competitors?, Time it right: Negotiate during performance review cycle, after a major success, or when taking on additional responsibilities, Frame as alignment: "I'd like to discuss aligning my compensation with the increased scope of my role", and Be patient but persistent: If the answer is "not now," ask "when and what would it take?".
The Counter-Offer Dilemma
When you receive a job offer and your current employer counters with a matching offer:
Research shows: 50-80% of employees who accept counter-offers leave within 12 months anyway. The underlying dissatisfaction (beyond salary) usually persists.
If you're negotiating with a new employer and your current employer counters:
Use the counter as leverage with the new employer: "My current company has offered to match. I prefer your opportunity, but I need to make the compensation work.", and Do not accept the counter-offer unless the underlying issues (scope, growth, culture) have also been addressed.
Negotiating Equity and Variable Compensation
For roles with equity or variable pay:
Equity:
Ask about the vesting schedule (typically 4 years with 1-year cliff), Ask about the strike price and current 409A valuation, Ask about the total shares outstanding (to calculate your ownership percentage), and Negotiate the grant size, not just the number of shares.
Variable compensation:
Negotiate the target (what % of target is achievable?), Negotiate the cap (is there a maximum?), Negotiate the formula (how is performance measured?), and Negotiate the threshold (what's the minimum performance to trigger any bonus?).
---
7. Practical Tools
Salary Negotiation Preparation Worksheet
SALARY NEGOTIATION WORKSHEET
MARKET RESEARCH.
Source 1: _____________ Range: $______ to $______
Source 2: _____________ Range: $______ to $______
Source 3: _____________ Range: $______ to $______
Adjusted for my factors: $______ to $______
MY VALUE.
Key achievement 1: ___________________ Impact: $______
Key achievement 2: ___________________ Impact: $______
Key achievement 3: ___________________ Impact: $______
Unique skills/certs: __________________________________
BATNA.
Current salary: $________
Competing offer: $________ (if any)
Reservation price: $________
NEGOTIATION RANGE.
Anchor (opening): $________ (90th percentile)
Target: $________ (75th percentile)
Reservation price: $________ (market floor)
TOTAL COMPENSATION.
Base salary: $________
Bonus target: $________
Equity value: $________
Benefits value: $________
Other perks: $________
Total: $________
CONCESSION PLAN.
If they offer $X, I'll ask for $Y
If they can't move on base, I'll ask for [signing bonus/equity/vacation]
If they say "budget is fixed," I'll ask "Is there flexibility on signing bonus or equity?"
Salary Negotiation Script Template
OPENING:
"Thank you so much for the offer. I'm genuinely excited about this
opportunity and confident I can make a significant contribution."
ANCHOR:
"Based on my research of market rates for this role [cite sources],
my experience in [specific area], and my track record of [specific
achievement], I was hoping for something closer to $X."
HANDLING OBJECTIONS:
"That's above our budget" → "I understand. How can we make this work?
I'm confident the value I'll deliver will justify the investment."
"We can't go above $Y" → "I appreciate that. Is there flexibility on
the total package — signing bonus, equity, or performance bonus?"
"Let me check with leadership" → "Of course. I'd love to resolve this
by [date]. I'm excited about the role and want to get started."
CLOSING:
"I'm very happy with this package. Thank you for working with me on
this. I'm excited to join the team."
Red Flags in Salary Negotiation
Employer pressures you to accept immediately ("We need an answer today"), Employer asks for your current salary before making an offer (in many jurisdictions, this is illegal), Employer refuses to share the salary range for the role, Employer makes you feel guilty for negotiating ("We're giving you a great opportunity"), Employer threatens to withdraw the offer if you negotiate, and The "budget" excuse without willingness to explore alternatives.
---
8. Common Mistakes
Mistake 1: Not Negotiating at All
Why it occurs: Fear of rejection, impostor syndrome, social conditioning.
How experts avoid it: They recognise that negotiation is expected and normal. They reframe it as a business transaction, not a personal request. They prepare thoroughly to build confidence.
Mistake 2: Revealing Your Current Salary
Why it occurs: The employer asks, and the candidate feels obligated to answer.
How experts avoid it: They redirect: "I'd prefer to focus on the value I'll bring to this role and the market rate for the position. What range are you considering?" In jurisdictions with salary history bans, they cite the law.
Mistake 3: Anchoring Too Low
Why it occurs: Fear of appearing greedy or being screened out.
How experts avoid it: They research market data and anchor at the 90th percentile with strong justification. They understand that the anchor sets the negotiation range.
Mistake 4: Negotiating Monthly Instead of Annual
Why it occurs: Monthly figures feel smaller and less confrontational.
How experts avoid it: They always negotiate in annual terms. A $5K/month difference is $60K/year — a significant amount that gets minimised when discussed monthly.
Mistake 5: Focusing Only on Base Salary
Why it occurs: Base salary is the most visible number.
How experts avoid it: They negotiate total compensation — base, bonus, equity, benefits, perks. Sometimes the base is inflexible but other components are negotiable.
Mistake 6: Accepting the First Offer Immediately
Why it occurs: Relief, excitement, fear of losing the offer.
How experts avoid it: They always ask for 24-48 hours to review the offer. They use this time to prepare their counter, consult with mentors, and assess the total package.
Mistake 7: Giving a Number First When Asked Pre-Offer
Why it occurs: The employer asks "What are your expectations?" and the candidate answers.
How experts avoid it: They deflect: "I'd like to learn more about the full scope of the role first. What range are you considering?"
Mistake 8: Not Documenting the Agreement
Why it occurs: Both parties agree verbally and trust that it will be reflected in the offer letter.
How experts avoid it: They request the final offer in writing before giving notice at their current job. They verify that every negotiated term is in the written offer.
Mistake 9: Negotiating After You've Already Said Yes
Why it occurs: The candidate accepts, then realises they left money on the table.
How experts avoid it: They never accept until the negotiation is complete. Once you say yes, your leverage disappears.
Mistake 10: Letting Emotions Drive Decisions
Why it occurs: Salary negotiation is personal and emotional.
How experts avoid it: They use data, not feelings. They prepare a script. They take time before responding. They consult with trusted advisors before accepting or rejecting.
---
9. Advanced Expert Tips
The Gender Negotiation Gap
Research by Babcock and Laschever shows that women are less likely to negotiate and, when they do, ask for less. This contributes significantly to the gender pay gap. However, research also shows that women face a "social cost" of negotiating — they may be perceived as "demanding" while men are perceived as "confident" for the same behaviour.
Strategies for women:
Frame negotiation as collaborative: "I'm hoping we can find a package that works for both of us", Use "we" language: "How can we make this work?", Cite external standards: "Based on market data...", and Build relationships before negotiating.
The First-Year Review Strategy
If the employer cannot meet your target salary:
Negotiate a guaranteed 6-month or 12-month review, Define the performance criteria that will trigger a raise, Get it in writing, and This converts a "no" into a "not yet" with a defined path.
The Title Negotiation
Title affects future market value. A "Senior Project Manager" will command a higher salary in the next job search than a "Project Manager" — even if the work is identical.
Negotiate the title as part of the package, Research what titles competitors use for similar roles, and A title change costs the employer nothing but increases your future value.
The Relocation Package
If the job requires relocation:
Negotiate the relocation package separately from salary, Typical packages: moving costs, temporary housing, home sale assistance, tax gross-up, and Don't commingle relocation with salary — they serve different purposes.
Negotiating When You're Underpaid
If you're currently underpaid (which you may not realise until you research):
Do not reveal your current salary, Anchor on market data, not your current compensation, Research thoroughly — you may be 20-30% below market, and Consider that a job change may be the fastest way to correct underpayment (annual raises typically don't close the gap).
---
Key Takeaways
Always negotiate. 41% of professionals don't — and lose hundreds of thousands over their career., Research your market value. Use multiple sources and adjust for your specific factors., Don't reveal your current salary. It anchors the employer to your (possibly below-market) current rate., Anchor with data. Present market research, achievements, and justification before your number., Negotiate total compensation. Base, bonus, equity, benefits, perks, title — all are negotiable., Wait 24-48 hours after the offer. Don't negotiate in the emotional moment., Use the "how" question. "How can we make this work?" forces the employer to solve your problem., Your BATNA is your power. Being employed, having competing offers, and having skills give you leverage., Document everything. Get the final offer in writing before giving notice., and Don't let emotions decide. Use data, preparation, and a script to stay rational..
---
FAQ
1. Should I negotiate my salary if the offer is already good?
Yes. Even if the offer exceeds your expectations, negotiate professionally. Employers expect it, and the initial offer is rarely their best. A 5-10% increase on a good offer compounds significantly over time.
2. What if the employer asks for my current salary?
Redirect: "I'd prefer to focus on the market rate for this role and the value I'll bring." In many jurisdictions (including several US states and UK), asking for salary history is illegal. If pressed, cite the law or provide a range based on market data rather than your current salary.
3. How much more should I ask for than the initial offer?
Research suggests asking for 10-20% above the initial offer, supported by market data. If the offer is $100K and market data supports $120K, counter at $120K-$125K. The key is that your counter must be justified by data, not arbitrary.
4. Is it risky to negotiate a job offer?
Research shows it's far riskier not to negotiate. Only 3% of employers revoke offers after professional negotiation. The risk of not negotiating is leaving 10-20% of your compensation on the table for your entire tenure.
5. How do I negotiate if I don't have a competing offer?
Use market data as your leverage: "Based on market research from [sources], the rate for this role is $X-$Y." Your BATNA is your current job (if employed) or continued job search (if not). Being employed gives you a stronger position than being unemployed.
6. Should I accept a counter-offer from my current employer?
Research shows 50-80% of employees who accept counter-offers leave within 12 months. If the only issue was salary, a counter-offer may work. If there were other issues (culture, growth, scope), a counter-offer won't fix them. Use a counter-offer as leverage with the new employer, not as your final destination.
7. How do I negotiate a raise in my current job?
Document your achievements with quantified impact. Research market rates. Time the conversation after a major success or during a performance review. Frame it as alignment: "My role has expanded significantly, and I'd like to discuss aligning my compensation with the current scope."
8. What if the employer says "the budget is fixed"?
Explore other components: "I understand the base salary budget is fixed. Is there flexibility on signing bonus, equity, performance bonus, or vacation time?" If nothing is flexible and the total package is below your reservation price, be prepared to walk.
9. Should I negotiate benefits and perks?
Yes. Benefits and perks have real value. Negotiate vacation time, flexible work arrangements, professional development budget, and title. A title change costs the employer nothing but increases your future market value.
10. How do I handle salary negotiation as a woman?
Research shows women face a social cost for negotiating. Mitigate this by using collaborative language ("How can we make this work?"), citing external standards ("Based on market data..."), and building relationships before negotiating. The gender pay gap is partly a negotiation gap — closing it starts with negotiating.
11. What if I've already accepted an offer and then realise I should have negotiated?
It's very difficult to renegotiate after accepting. Your leverage disappears once you say yes. If you haven't signed the contract yet, you could try: "After further reflection and research, I'd like to discuss the compensation before finalising." But this is risky. The best strategy is to never accept until the negotiation is complete.
12. How do I negotiate equity in a startup?
Ask about: vesting schedule (typically 4-year with 1-year cliff), strike price, total shares outstanding (to calculate ownership percentage), and last 409A valuation. Negotiate the grant size. Understand that equity in a startup is high-risk — treat it as a potential upside, not guaranteed compensation.
---
References
Babcock, L., & Laschever, S. (2008). Women Don't Ask: Negotiation and the Gender Divide. Princeton University Press., Voss, C. (2016). Never Split the Difference. Harper Business., Fisher, R., Ury, W., & Patton, B. (2011). Getting to Yes (3rd ed.). Penguin Books., Shell, G. R. (2018). Bargaining for Advantage (3rd ed.). Penguin Books., Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux., Malhotra, D., & Bazerman, M. (2007). Negotiation Genius. Bantam Books., Clance, P. R., & Imes, S. A. (1978). "The Impostor Phenomenon in High Achieving Women." Psychotherapy Theory, Research and Practice, 15(3), 241-247., Thorsteinson, T. J. (2011). "Initiating Salary Discussions with High Versus Low Anchor Points." Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 41(7), 1779-1788., Mason, M. F., et al. (2013). "Precise Offers Are More Effective." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(6), 1103-1108., and Diamond, S. (2010). Getting More. Crown Business..